The impact of demographic factors on work-family conflict and turnover intentions in the hotel industry

Jelena Tepavčević¹, Svetlana Vukosav¹, Milan Bradić¹

¹University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Science, Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management, Novi Sad, Serbia

Abstract: Family and work are the most important aspects in an individual’s life, and the primary goal is to find a balance between these two. Given the characteristics of working in the hotel industry, employees in this industry very often face a conflict between family and work. This study aims to measure the impact of socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, education and marital status) on work-family conflict (WFC) and turnover intentions (TI). On the sample of 1.100 employees in different hotel facilities by applying t-test and analysis of variance ANOVA, it was found that tested socio-demographic characteristics are not significant indicators of experiencing WFC, but age and marital status are proven to be significant determinants of turnover intentions. Results obtained in this study can help managers to understand antecedents and consequences of experiencing work-family conflict and to undertake activities to reduce these conflicts and turnover intentions of employees.

Keywords: services, hotel industry, lodging, work-family conflict, turnover intentions
JEL classification: L83, J63, J24, Z31

Uticaj socio-demografskih karakteristika na konflikt između posla i porodice i namere o napuštanju posla u hotelijerstvu

Sažetak: Porodica i posao su među najvažnijim sferama života pojedinca, a primarni cilj je nalaženje ravnoteže između njih. S obzirom na osobenosti rada u hotelijerstvu, zaposleni se često susreću sa konfliktom uzrokovanim obavezama u porodičnom životu i na poslu. Cilj rada je merenje uticaja socio-demografskih karakteristika (pol, starosna dob, nivo obrazovanja i bračni status) na konflikt posao-porodica i namere o napuštanju posla. Na uzorku od 1.100 ispitanika u različitim hotelijerskim objektima primenom t-testa i analize varijanse ANOVA, pokazalo se da nema razlika u doživljavanju konflikta posao-porodica u odnosu na testirane socio-demografske karakteristike, ali kada je u pitanju namera napuštanja posla, postoje statistički značajne razlike u odnosu na starosnu dob i bračni status. Rezultati dobijeni ovim istraživanjem mogu pomoći menadžerima da razumeju antecedente i posledice doživljavanja konflikta između posla i porodice i da preduzmu aktivnosti kako bi smanjili ove konflikte i namere o napuštanju posla kod zaposlenih.

Klјučne reči: usluge, hotelijerstvo, konflikt posao-porodica, namere o napuštanju posla
JEL klasifikacija: L83, J63, J24, Z31

1. Introduction

As the two most important spheres in the lives of individuals, work and family often come into conflict, and their influence is an indicator of success and life satisfaction in general. Work is usually necessary for the normal functioning of the family, but it often happens to affect the disintegration and instability of the family members. The increased number of employed women reduces the time that spouses spend participating in joint family activities. This development has led to a series of problems that inevitably affect the emergence of conflicts between these two spheres of human life. As stated by Netemeyer et al. (1996) family-work conflict (FWC) is a kind of interrole conflict in which the overall demands of the family, as well as time dedicated to it, and the pressure created by the family interfere with completing work-related duties. On the other hand, the same authors defined work-family conflict (WFC) as a type of interrole conflict in which the overall demands of the work, as well as time dedicated to it, and the pressure created by the work interfere with completing family-related duties. The existence of conflicts between family and work, as well as between work and family, negatively affects work performance, health, but also the satisfaction with various aspects of life. Due to this, it is important to strive to establish work-life balance. As claimed by several authors, work-life balance could be characterized as an absence of work-family conflict along with high levels of work-family enrichment (Duxbury & Higgins, 2001; O’Driscoll et al., 2006). In many industries, the aim is to reduce the time spent at work and away from the family, while in the hospitality industry this is not the case because most jobs are impossible without a key factor - people. In addition to the above, work in the hospitality industry is different from work in other industries because employees in hotels and restaurants work when most employees in other industries are free (e.g. at weekends and national holidays). Studies that have addressed this issue show that employees in the service sector are more susceptible to family and work conflict (Furnham, 2002; Netemeyer et al., 2005). Susceptibility to these conflicts can be explained by the fact that customer relationships are often very fierce and stressful, which is later transferred to employees’ homes (Netemeyer et al., 1990; Netemeyer et al., 2005). On the other hand, some authors believe that not only work is a factor which affects the existence of this conflict, but also those family duties can affect the disruption of work obligations (Choi & Kim, 2012; Poelmans et al., 2003).
Employees who are faced with a conflict between family and work become emotionally exhausted, and these two forms of conflict (WFC and FWC) are notable predictors of employment change (Yavas et al., 2008). The occurrence of problems at work has immediate and negative effects on the family (Turliuc & Buliga, 2014). The same authors state that the conflict between family and work is the main antecedent of the turnover intention (TI), which explains the high rate of labour turnover in the hotel industry.

2. Literature review

Impact of gender on work-family conflict and turnover intentions
Research that has addressed gender differences and conflicts between work and family has yielded various conclusions. Some studies have shown that women express the presence of these conflicts more than men (Frankenhaeuser et al., 1989; Lundberg et al., 1994), while others pointed out that gender has no effect on the conflict between family and business life (Akintayo, 2010; Frone, 2003; Karatepe et al., 2010). Research in the field of hospitality industry indicated that female employees report higher levels of WFC and FWC than male (Fiksenbaum et al., 2010; Tromp & Blomme, 2014; Yavas et al., 2008).  In addition, some authors have indicated that gender is a factor of turnover intention, i.e. that women show a higher degree of turnover intention than men (Emiroğlu et al., 2015). Contrastingly, Carbery et al. (2003) and Yavas et al. (2008) found no influence of gender on turnover intention. Chen et al. (2018) found out that male hotel employees who experienced a higher level of WFC have higher intention to leave an organization than female hotel employees.
Based on this, the authors proposed the following hypotheses:
H1: There are significant differences in experiencing WFC according to gender.
H2: There are significant differences in expressing TI according to gender.

Impact of age on work-family conflict and turnover intentions

Age has been found as a factor that contributes to experiencing WFC and intent to leave an organization. Specifically, Gordon and Berry (2007) have indicated that, in the early stage of their careers, people are frequently willing to forfeit their personal lives in light of legitimate concern for their professional progression. Various researches indicated inconsistency in findings. For example, several authors pointed to negative association between age and WFC (Andreassi & Thompson, 2007; Grzywacz & Marks, 2000; Hsu, 2011). Contrary to their results, Mjoli et al. (2013) found positive association between age and WFC. On the other hand, Karatepe et al. (2010) did not found any significant correlation between WFC and age. Age was found as a determinant of turnover intention; and the turnover intention is generally lower among older employees (Blomme et al., 2010; Carbery et al., 2003; Karatepe et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2010; Pizam & Thornburg, 2006).
Based on this, the authors proposed the following hypotheses:
H3: There are significant differences in experiencing WFC according to age.
H4: There are significant differences in expressing TI according to age.

Impact of education level on work-family conflict and turnover intentions

The influence of education level on WFC has been recognized in the literature. Higher educated people would acquire more chances of advancement or working away, which increases the possibility of WFC (Adams et al., 1996). Anafarta and Kuruüzüm (2012) found that increasing the level of education in both males and females leads to an increase in the level of WFC they face with. Contrary to this, Carnicer et al. (2004) indicated that level of education has no evident effect on WFC. In some studies, the relationship between education level and turnover intentions has been examined. There is a positive relationship between the level of education and turnover intention, i.e. people with a lower level of education have a less pronounced intention to leave the organization (Carbery et al., 2003). On the other hand, in the study of Karatepe et al. (2006), a negative connection was found between education level and TI, i.e. that more educated employees express less turnover intention. Blomme et al. (2010) explore the association between flexibility in the workplace, organizational support, WFC, and the turnover intention among highly educated employed respondents in hotels. Their results indicate that the WFC and organizational support significantly explain the intentions of highly educated employed respondents to leave the organization.
Based on this, the authors proposed the following hypotheses:
H5: There are significant differences in experiencing WFC according to education level.
H6: There are significant differences in expressing TI according to education level.

Impact of marital status on work-family conflict and turnover intentions

Various studies have examined the impact of marital status on WFC and intentions to leave an organization. In several studies, a negative impact of marital status on WFC was found (Beutell, 2010; Mukanzi & Senaji, 2017; Rathi & Barath, 2013). On the other hand, Liu et al. (2020) found no significant association between marital status and WFC. Besides its impact on WFC, marital status is one of the determinants for leaving an organization (Carbery et al., 2003). The rate of leaving the organization is lower among married people than among singles (Carbery et al., 2003; Emiroğlu et al., 2015).
Based on this, the authors proposed the following hypotheses:
H7: There are significant differences in experiencing WFC according to marital status.
H8: There are significant differences in expressing TI according to marital status.

3. Methodology

The research was carried out on the territory of the Republic of Serbia among employees in various types of hotel facilities. The study included 64 hotels, 21 garni hotels, 3 tourist resorts, 3 motels and 1 pension. The employees were surveyed using a face-to-face technique in order to increase the response rate, as well as to eliminate potential ambiguities during the completion of the questionnaire. A total of 1,130 employees in different positions and in different sectors were surveyed. 30 questionnaires were eliminated from further processing due to missing data, so responses of 1,100 employees were included in further analysis. The questionnaire used to measure WFC and TI of hotel employees in Serbia consisted of two parts. The first part referred to sociodemographic data of respondents (gender, age, level of education, marital status). The second part contained items that were grouped into five factors (Work - Family Conflict – WFC, Family - Work Conflict – FWC, Emotional Exhaustion, Job Performance and Turnover Intentions). The research was based on the study of Yavas et al. (2008) who conducted the research among employees in executive positions in hotels with 3 *, 4 * and 5 *. The factors were taken completely and there was no need for their modification. The first factor, Work-Family Conflict included 5 items that referred to the inability to perform family obligations due to work.  Given that this conflict is two-way, the second factor Family-Work Conflict, consisted of 5 items that are related to the lack of work obligations performance due to family. The Emotional Exhaustion factor consisted of 8 items related to burnout and exhaustion at work. Within the Job Performance factor, employees expressed their perceptions of commitment at work through 5 items. The last factor, Turnover Intentions, consisted of 3 items related to the intentions of employees to leave the organization. A five-point Likert scale was used to express the degree of agreement with the statements within the factors (1 - I do not agree at all, 5 - I completely agree). Higher scores ​​indicate a higher degree of presence of these conflicts, emotional exhaustion, perception of work performance, as well as turnover intention.

4. Results

Out of a total of 1,100 respondents, approximately the same number of employees are male (47%) and female (53%). Most respondents belong to the age category between 26 and 35 years (39.1%) and the least are older than 55 years (4.5%). Pertaining to marital status, almost half of the total number of employed respondents are married (48.8%), and a very small percentage are widowed (1.6%) as well as those in other types of partnerships (1.7%). Observing the level of education of the respondents, it can be noticed that the majority of respondents have completed high school (56.3%), but the share of highly educated (33.8%), as well as those with completed magistrate/master studies (9.6%) is also satisfactory (Table 1).

Table 1: Sociodemographic characteristics of respondents

Source: Author’s research

The results of the descriptive statistical analysis are given in Table 2. Analysing the values ​​of each factor, it is found that the factor with the highest mean is JP (3.3593), while the factor with the lowest mean is FWC (1.9565). Comparing the mean values ​​of factors FWC (1.9565) and WFC (2.5324), it could be concluded that employees in the hotel industry in Serbia face WFC more than FWC. Guided by the fact that work in the hotel industry is very intense and specific, because employees make daily contacts with guests and working with people, it was assumed that respondents would express a high level of emotional exhaustion.  Factor EE has the mean value is 2.6095, and such low value were not expected. Statements within the factor TI have almost equal values ​​that are very low. In addition to descriptive statistical analysis, the reliability of the questionnaire was also analysed. The Cronbach Alpha coefficient of the overall scale is 0.919, and the values ​​of the coefficients of individual factors are shown in Table 2. Reliability analysis found that the Cronbach Alpha coefficient for all factors exceeds the recommended value of 0.7 (Kaiser, 1974), indicating that all factors are in the high-reliability domain.

Table 2: Results of descriptive statistical analysis

Source: Author’s research

In relation to the gender of the respondents (Table 3), t-test showed that there are no notable differences between male and female respondents for all observed factors. Based on the obtained results, H1 and H2 were not confirmed.
 

Table 3: T-test according to the gender of respondents

Source: Author’s research

One-way analysis of variance examined whether there were differences in respondents’ responses in relation to certain socio-demographic factors (age, level of education and marital status). ANOVA variance analysis in relation to the age of the respondents (Table 4) determined the presence of significant differences in responses within the factors FWC, EE, JP and TI. No significant differences were found within WFC factor. This result did not provide support for H3. By applying LSD post-hoc test, it was determined between which age groups there are differences. Within the FWC factor F=7,828, p = 0.000), it is evident that respondents from the category up to 25 years give significantly lower grades than respondents from all other age categories. Within the factor EE (F=6,223, p = 0.000), it is noticeable that respondents from the category up to 25 years express a lower degree of emotional exhaustion compared to respondents from all other age categories. Within the factor JP (F= 3,329, p = 0.016), respondents from the category up to 25 years give significantly lower grades than respondents from the categories 26 - 35 years and 36 - 45 years. The last factor, TI (F= 3,064, p = 0.016) indicates that employees in the category of 46 - 55 years express significantly lower intention to leave the organization compared to younger employed respondents.

Table 4: ANOVA according to age

Source: Author’s research

Using the ANOVA test in relation to the level of education (Table 5), it was found that there is a notable difference only within the factor JP (F = 8,497, p = 0.000). LSD post-hoc showed that employees with completed high school perceive a significantly lower work performance than those with a college or university degree, as well as those with a master’s degree. The obtained results did not confirm H5 and H6.

Table 5: ANOVA according to education level

Source: Author’s research

Using marital status as an independent variable in the application of the ANOVA test, it was calculated that there was significant difference between the factors FWC(F = 4,037, p = 0.003), EE (F= 2,557, p = 0.037) and TI (F= 3,084, p = 0.015). To determine among which groups of respondents there are differences in responses, the LSD post-hoc test was applied (Table 6). In the case of the FWC, respondents who are divorced express a higher level of this conflict than those who are married and unmarried. In terms of EE, married employees express a significantly lower level of exhaustion and burnout at work compared to divorced employees. The TI is least pronounced among married employees. The LSD post-hoc test indicated that those employees who are not married and those who are in other types of partnerships express a higher degree of turnover intention than employees who are married. The obtained results provided confirmation of H8. No significant difference was found within WFC, which did not confirm H7.

Table 6: ANOVA according to marital status

Source: Author’s research

5. Discussion and conclusions

Nowadays, the conflict between family and work life is more and more frequent, and it is especially expressed in service activities such as the hotel industry with overtime work, inflexible working hours, work in shifts, but also work during holidays and weekends. Working with people is often very stressful, which is later projected onto other spheres of life. No matter how much effort is put into creating a balance between these two spheres, there will always be situations that will demand priority at some point. Reconciling work with private life is very important for the quality of life overall. The question is often asked whether this conflict arises because work takes too much time, so people overcome fatigue after a hard day, or it is difficult to concentrate on work due to family obligations. When it is not possible to strike a balance between these two spheres in an individual’s life, there are numerous negative consequences - poor family relationships, poorer performance at work, less motivation to work and more. It is wrong to assume that the conflict between work and family life and the establishment of a balance between these two spheres is a phenomenon that is unique to women. Also, the experience of these conflicts should not be associated with the individual, because the problems caused by this conflict affect both the individual and the organization.
The findings of the conducted research show that gender is not a significant indicator of differences in experiencing WFC, nor the intention to leave the organization. The H1 stems from the assumption that gender has an influence on experiencing WFC, because women, although accomplished in the career, are still the ones who are most engaged in family life. By applying t-test according to gender it was found that there are no notable differences in experiencing WFC between males and females. These results did not give support for H1, but confirmed results obtained in previous studies (Akintayo, 2010; Frone, 2003; Karatepe et al., 2010). Given the fact that several studies identified the impact of gender on intention to leave an organization (Chen et al., 2018; Emiroğlu et al., 2015), in this study the authors tested if gender has an influence on turnover intentions. Results showed no significant differences according to gender when it comes to intentions to leave an organization, which rejected H2. In several studies, no significant impact of gender on turnover intentions was found (Carbery et al., 2003; Yavas et al., 2008 ), so the results obtained in this study are in accordance with them. Taking into account the age of employees as a variable, it was found that significant differences exist in four of the five factors (FWC, EE, JP and TI). As in the study of Karatepe et al. (2010), in this study no significant differences were found in responses related to WFC according to age, which rejected H3. With reference to turnover intentions, younger employees express a higher degree of turnover intention compared to older ones, which is in accordance with previous studies (Blomme et al., 2010; Carbery et al., 2003; Karatepe et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2010; Pizam & Thornburg, 2006). As an alternative explanation for such results, the fact of greater readiness of young people for new experiences and easier spatial and business change could be mentioned. This confirms H4.
The level of education proved to be significant only for the JP factor. Respondents with completed high school perceive their work performance lower than employees with higher education. Highly educated employees are mostly engaged in performing more complex work tasks, which results in a higher perception of their own performance. Employees with a lower level of education usually perform operational tasks, which require fewer skills and qualifications, and therefore the perception of work performance is lower. Since the literature recognized the influence of education level on WFC (Adams et al., 1996; Anafarta & Kuruüzüm, 2012), in this study no evident relationship between education level and WFC was determined. These results rejected H5. Based on results of many studies (i.e. Carbery et al., 2003; Karatepe et al., 2006), the initial assumption was that highly educated employees express a higher degree of turnover intention. In this study no significant impact of education level on turnover intention was found, which did not provide support for H6. Although several studies found relationship between marital status and WFC (Beutell, 2010; Mukanzi & Senaji, 2017; Rathi & Barath, 2013), the findings of this research showed no notable relationship between marital status and WFC, which rejected H7. However, obtained results are in line with the results of Liu et al. (2020) study, who found no significant association between marital status and experiencing WFC. When it comes to the relationship between marital status and intentions to leave an organization, some papers point out that the level of turnover intention is higher among single people than among married people (Carbery et al., 2003; Emiroğlu et al., 2015). The obtained results indicate that married respondents have lower intention to leave the organization than single ones, which confirms H8. These findings could be possibly explained by the fact that married employees do not make easy decisions to leave the organization, especially if there are children in the family, because it would jeopardize financial stability.
The recommendation for future research is to include variables such as job satisfaction and work autonomy (Gözükara & Çolakoğlu, 2016), a type of work and spousal support (Gamor et al., 2014) as well as different cultural backgrounds in order to contribute to the literature in this field, as well as a more complete understanding of this phenomena in the hotel industry.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

1. Adams, G. A., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (1996). Relationships of job and family involvement, family social support, and work–family conflict with job and life satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(4), 411–420. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.81.4.411
2. Akintayo, D. I. (2010). Managerial effectiveness: Impact of emotional intelligence and work-family role conflict in work organizations in Nigeria. Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review, 26, 23–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/eas.0.0016
3. Anafarta, N., & Kuruüzüm, A. (2012). Demographic predictors of work-family conflict for men and women: Turkish case. International Journal of Business and Management, 7(13), 145–158. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v7n13p145
4. Andreassi, J. K., & Thompson, C. A. (2007). Dispositional and situational sources of control: Relative impact on work‐family conflict and positive spillover. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(8), 722–740. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710837697
5. Beutell, N. J. (2010). Work schedule, work schedule control and satisfaction in relation to work-family conflict, work-family synergy, and domain satisfaction. Career Development International, 15, 501–518. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620431011075358
6. Blomme, R. J., Van Rheede, A., & Tromp, D. M. (2010). Work-family conflict as a cause for turnover intentions in the hospitality industry. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 10(4), 269–285. https://doi.org/10.1057/thr.2010.15
7. Carbery, R., Garavan, T. N., O’Brien, F., & McDonnell, J. (2003). Predicting hotel managers’ turnover cognitions. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 18(7), 649–679. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940310502377
8. Carnicer, M. P., Sánchez, A. M., & Pérez, M. P. (2004). Work-family conflict in a southern European country. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 19, 466–489. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02683940410543579
9. Chen, H., Ayoun, B., & Eyoun, K. (2018). Work-family conflict and turnover intentions: A study comparing China and U.S. hotel employees. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 17(2), 247–269. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332845.2017.1406272 
10. Choi, H. J., & Kim, Y. T. (2012). Work-family conflict, work-family facilitation, and job outcomes in the Korean hotel industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 24(7), 1011–1028. https://doi.org/10.1108/09596111211258892
11. Duxbury, L., & Higgins, C. (2001). Work-life balance in the new millennium: Where are we? Where do we need to go? CPRN Discussion Paper. Canadian Policy Research Networks Inc., Ottawa (Ontario).
12. Emiroğlu, B. D., Akova, O., & Tanrıverdi, H. (2015). The relationship between turnover intention and demographic factors in hotel businesses: A study at five star hotels in Istanbul. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 207, 385–397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.10.108
13. Fiksenbaum, L., Jeng, W., Koyuncu, M., & Burke, R. J. (2010). Work hours, work intensity, satisfactions and psychological well-being among hotel managers in China. Cross Cultural Management, 17, 79–93. https://doi.org/10.1108/13527601011016925
14. Frankenhaeuser, M., Lundberg, U., Fredrikson, M., Melin, B., Tuomisto, M., Myrsten, A.-L., ... Wallin, L. (1989). Stress on and off the job as related to sex and occupational status in white-collar workers. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 10(4), 321–346. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030100404
15. Frone, M. R. (2003). Work–family balance - Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 143–162). Washington, USA: American Psychological Association.
16. Furnham, A. (2002, February 5). Happy staff is not the full answer: Management style can be reflected in customer service – but the relationship is complex. Financial Times, p. 16.
17. Gamor, E., Amissah, E. F., & Boakye, K. A. A. (2014). Work-family conflict among hotel employees in Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis, Ghana. Tourism Management Perspectives, 12, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2014.06.001
18. Gordon, J. R., & Berry-Whelan, K. S. (2007). The relationship among work-family conflict and enhancement, organizational culture and work outcomes for older working women. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12, 350–364. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.12.4.350
19. Gözükara, İ., & Çolakoğlu, N. (2016). The mediating effect of work family conflict on the relationship between job autonomy and job satisfaction. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 229, 253–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.07.136
20. Grzywacz, J. G, & Marks, N. F. (2000) Family, work, work-family spillover, and problem drinking during midlife. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(2), 336–348. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00336.x
21. Hsu, Y. R. (2011). Work‐family conflict and job satisfaction in stressful working environments. International Journal of Manpower, 32(2), 233–248. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437721111130224
22. Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02291575
23. Karatepe, O. M., Sokmen, A., Yavas, U., & Babakus, E. (2010). Work-family conflict and burnout in frontline service jobs: Direct, mediating and moderating effects. Ekonomie a Management [Economics and Management], 13(4), 61–73. http://hdl.handle.net/11025/17366
24. Karatepe, O. M., Uludag, O., Menevis, I., Hadzimehmedagic, L., & Baddar, L. (2006). The effects of selected individual characteristics on frontline employee performance and job satisfaction. Tourism Management,27, 547–560. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2005.02.009
25. Kim, B. P., Lee, G., Carlson, K. D. (2010). An examination of the nature of the relationship between leader-member-exchange (LMX) and turnover intent at different organizational levels. International Journal of Hospitality Management,29,591–597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2009.10.025
26. Liu, C., Cao, J., Zhang, P., & Wu, G. (2020). Investigating the relationship between work-to-family conflict, job burnout, job outcomes, and affective commitment in the construction industry. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(16), 5995. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17165995
27. Lundberg, U., Mardberg, B., & Frankenhaeuser, M. (1994). The total workload of male and female white collar workers as related to age, occupational level, and number of children. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 35(4), 315–327. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.1994.tb00956.x
28. Mjoli, T., Dywili, M., & Dodd, N. (2013). Demographic determinants of work-family conflict among female factory workers in South Africa. Journal of Economics, Business and Management, 1(1), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.7763/JOEBM.2013.V1.9
29. Mukanzi, C. M., & Senaji, T. A. (2017). Work–family conflict and employee commitment: The moderating effect of perceived managerial support. SAGE Open, 7(3), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017725794
30. Netemeyer, R. G., Boles, J. S., & McMurrian, R. (1996). Development and validation of work–family conflict and family–work conflict scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(4), 400–410. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.81.4.400
31. Netemeyer, R. G., Johnston, M. W., & Burton, S. (1990). Analysis of role conflict and role ambiguity in a structural equations framework. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(2), 148–157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.75.2.148
32. Netemeyer, R. G., Maxham, J. G., III, & Pullig, C. (2005). Conflicts in the work family interface: Links to job stress, customer service employee performance, and customer purchase intention. Journal of Marketing, 69(2), 130–143. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.69.2.130.60758
33. O’Driscoll, M., Brough, P., & Kalliath, T. (2006). Work-family conflict and facilitation. InF. Jones et al. (Eds.), Work-life Balance: A Psychological Perspective (pp. 117–142). Hove: Psychological Press.
34. Pizam, A., & Thornburg, S. W. (2000). Absenteeism and voluntary turnover in Central Florida hotels: A pilot study. Hospitality Management,19, 211–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-4319(00)00011-6
35. Poelmans, S. A., Chinchilla, N., & Cardona, P. (2003). The adaption of family-friendly HRM policies: Competing for scarce resources in the labour market. International Journal of Manpower, 24(2), 128–147. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437720310475394
36. Rathi, N., & Barath, M. (2013). Work-family conflict and job and family satisfaction: Moderating effect of social support among police personnel. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 32, 438–454. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-10-2012-0092
37. Tromp, D. M., & Blomme, R. J. (2014). Leadership style and negative work-home interference in the hospitality industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 26, 85–106. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-04-2012-0058
38. Turliuc, M., & Buliga, D. (2014). Work-family conflict and job and family satisfaction. Тhe mediating role of cognitions. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 159, 105–109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.338
39. Yavas, U., Babakus, E., & Karatepe, O.M. (2008). Attitudinal and behavioral consequences of work-family conflict and family-work conflict: Does gender matter? International Journal of Service Industry Management, 19(1), 7–31. https://doi.org/10.1108/09564230810855699

Received: 9 June 2021; Sent for revision: 3 July 2021; Accepted: 27 August 2021